Large dirt clods cause poor germination because seeds planted in or under them have little contact with the soil or may be buried too deeply. If the soil is too wet, it will be difficult to break up the large clods. In this case, allow it to dry a few days and try again. You may have to rake and dry the soil several times to achieve the desired soil condition, but be patient and take your time. If the soil has hard, dry clods, wet them and then start working them down. Level the soil after it has reached the desired texture.The ideal soil is a loam, one whose texture is not too light or too heavy . No soil is perfect, but try to use the best soil that you can find. Very light or very heavy soils can be modified with organic amendments to increase their water-holding capacity or to improve drainage. Light, sandy soils are generally very low in organic matter and water-holding capacity. Adding large amounts of organic matter, such as humus, compost, or well rotted manure, to light soil increases its water-holding capacity and the percentage of organic content. Adding organic matter helps make heavy soils more friable , improving water infiltration and root penetration. It also serves as filler to increase the number of large pore spaces in the soil. To be effective, vertical cannabis large amounts of organic matter are necessary—about one-third by volume of soil is often desirable, and less than 20 percent is often ineffective.
Humus, compost, composted manure, or green materials like almond hulls or grape or apple pumice are most desirable because they help maintain good soil structure over time. Work a 2- to 4-inch layer of this material into the top 1 foot of soil and allow it to sit for a week or two before planting. If high-carbon materials are used, add extra nitrogen at the rate of 0.5 pound of actual nitrogen per 10 cubic feet of organic material . This extra nitrogen feeds the organisms that reduce the organic matter, whose activity would otherwise rob nitrogen from the plants.Raised beds are frequently desirable, even though a great deal of organic material may be used in their construction. Planting in raised beds allows excess moisture to drain out of the soil and also permits air to move around the plant roots, reducing the potential for rot. Raised beds are commonly used in California and can make gardening easier for you. The furrows also provide walking space between plant rows. The simplest raised beds are made of mounded soil 20 to 60 inches wide from the center of one ditch to the center of the other. The actual dimensions will depend on the soil, irrigation methods, cultural practices, and what is to be planted. A common width is 30 inches : a single row of cabbage or beans, or two rows of carrots or beets, can be planted in a bed this wide. For spreading plants such as tomatoes and squash, a 48- to 60-inch bed is more desirable.
If the garden slopes, beds should run north and south so that both sides will get equal sunlight—this is particularly desirable for winter gardens. Raised beds may be reinforced by a wooden frame, particularly if the soil is heavy or poorly drained. Raised beds with wooden sides offer many advantages other than improved drainage. The soil absorbs water better and warms up sooner in the spring. The wooden sides of the bed offer a good place to fasten markers or stakes for trellises. If gophers are a problem, wire can be placed under the bed before it is filled with soil. To build a reinforced, or “boxed,” raised bed, use 2-by-12 redwood planks for the sides and ends and fill with modified or amended soil. A boxed raised bed should probably not be more than 4 feet wide for ease in planting and care, but it may be as narrow as 12 inches if space is limited. The soil in a boxed raised bed may be composed of any good potting mix or modified soil, depending on the materials at hand. One-third to one-half of the mix can be your regular soil, and the remainder may be compost or other organic material. If good-quality loam topsoil is available, less organic matter is needed. The soil must be dry when mixed with the organic matter, and clumps of compost or clods of soil must be broken up and uniformly mixed before placing in the bed. After the soil is mixed and placed in the bed, build a path around the bed for use in wet weather. A permanent sprinkler system or a faucet for irrigation hoses can be attached to the outside of the bed at a convenient location. Plants in a raised bed can be placed closer together for higher yields, but avoid overcrowding.
For optimal plant growth, the soil should remain evenly moist as plants mature; try to avoid alternating wet and dry soil conditions. Although deep irrigation is preferable because it promotes deeper root growth, you may need to provide frequent, light irrigations, especially for shallow-rooted crops such as lettuce or corn. As a general rule, water should be applied when the top 1 to 2 inches of the soil have dried out. Your watering schedule will vary according to your soil and weather conditions. Using a layer of mulch around plants helps conserve soil moisture and reduces the frequency of irrigation, and it also discourages the growth of weeds. However, be sure that adequate water is able to move through the mulch layer into the root zone of the plants. Furrow irrigation provides ample water to the root zone but results in considerable water loss through evaporation and may make the soil so soggy that you cannot work in the garden until the soil surface dries. Overhead watering with a hose, watering can, or sprinkler is usually considered the least efficient irrigation method. Much of the water is lost through evaporation, and some will fall on soil away from the roots and provide moisture to weeds. Additionally, water that falls on the foliage may contribute to leaf diseases. The best results are usually obtained by using drip tape or soaker hoses, which slowly supply water directly to the plant roots with minimal loss through evaporation and little water contact with the foliage.Nitrogen is naturally low in almost all California soils, and soil in many regions of the state is also low in phosphorus, so these nutrients should be added to the soil before planting. Most California soils have adequate amounts of other essential plant nutrients, but continued poor growth of vegetables, weeds, and other plants may indicate a deficiency of one or more nutrients. Soil tests, or consultation with a UCCE Farm Advisor or Master Gardener, can help you decide whether other nutrients are needed. By law, the guaranteed content of a fertilizer must be printed on the bag or box. This content is expressed as the percentages of nitrogen , phosphorus , and potassium . For example, ammonium sulfate is labeled as 21-0-0: 21 percent by weight of nitrogen, pots for cannabis plants and no phosphorus or potassium. To find out how much fertilizer would be needed to apply a certain amount of nutrient, divide the amount of nutrient needed by the percentage given on the bag. For example, to apply 0.5 pound of actual nitrogen using ammonium sulfate , divide 0.5 by 21% . The result is that about 2.4 pounds of ammonium sulfate would be needed. A preplant fertilizer application of a combination of nitrogen and phosphorus should be worked into the soil as the seedbed is being prepared. A basic commercial fertilizer of ammonium phosphate, , is one of the simplest to use for this purpose. Broadcast 2 pounds of this fertilizer per 100 square feet of garden space and then work it into the planting bed. While additional potassium is not necessary for most California soils, a fertilizer containing this element can be used safely. If used, apply at the rate of 3 pounds of 10-10-5 or 12-12-12 per 100 square feet of garden area. Soil productivity can also be improved by generous application of manure.
Approximately 1 pound of dry steer manure per square foot of garden area is usually sufficient. Chicken manure contains more-concentrated nutrients and, if used, should be applied more sparingly, 1 pound per 5 square feet . Manure should be worked uniformly into the top 6 inches of soil several weeks to a month before planting. Fertilizers may be as effective—in some cases more effective—if they are “banded” at planting time rather than being broadcast and worked into the soil. To band fertilizer, determine where seeds are to be planted and mark the row with a small groove or a string tied from one end of the row to the other. Dig a shallow trench 1 inch to one side and 3 inches below where the seed is to be placed, then distribute fertilizer evenly in the bottom of this trench and cover it with soil. If furrow irrigation is used, the band should be between the seed row and the irrigation furrow. If irrigation is by sprinkler, either side is acceptable. Use 1.5 pounds of 10-10-5 or 12-12-12 fertilizer per 100 feet of row. Most vegetables will respond to “side-dressing” with a nitrogen-containing fertilizer such as ammonium sulfate at the rate of 2 pounds per 100 feet of row after the plants are 3 to 4 inches high. Side-dressing is done in the same way as banding, using a small furrow between the plants and the irrigation furrow, and covering the fertilizer with soil. If the plants are large, place the side-dressing furrow farther away from them. Irrigate to dissolve the fertilizer so the water will move it down into the root zone of the plants.This thesis deals with two important trends in the U.S. dairy industry: 1) increases in farm size, and 2) the increases in prevalence of female dairy farm operators. This research explores detailed data on farm size changes in major U.S. dairy states and document consolidation and other trends in the patterns of dairy farm size distributions. The dairy industry is of interest, not only because it is an important industry measured by production value, but also because of its environmental and social importance. Declines in the number of dairies have raised concerns based on their impact on rural communities, particularly movement of dairies out of local regions and, the potential fall in local employment opportunities. New data on farm operator characteristics allow us to better analyze the trends of gender demographics and the influence of operators’ ages relative to farm size. There has been very little economic research related to the increasing role of female operators in the dairy industry. Trends toward more women operators and fewer dairy farms suggests correlations between the role of women in the dairy industry and herd size per farm and other farm characteristics. Looking overall at U.S. trend in operations with milk cows, Figure 1.1 shows that since 1982, the number of operations with milk cows has decreased rapidly and the average number of milk cows per farm has increased. This graph describes a trend of consolidation in the dairy industry, as defined as operations with milk cows. Despite the slight decrease in number of milk cows there has been an increase in the U.S. milk production . These changes characterize the consolidation within the dairy industry. These national trends mask large differences by state. Some states, such as California, has seen growth of herd sizes into the range of 2,000 or more milk cows per farm. Other states, such as Wisconsin have experienced equally rapid increases in herd size per farm in percentage terms, but herd sizes of larger farms in Wisconsin are in the range of 500 cows per farm. Consolidation is common in other farm industries. An important contribution of this thesis is to document and characterizes this trend over time for an important industry, which is of significance to agricultural economic research.