The first process operates on a conceptual level by involving perceptions of risks as primary determinants of intentions in risk-altering behavior . Perceived risk is a subjective judgment about the severity of harmful consequence of an action, whereas intentions refer to a deliberate plan to engage in the behavior . The second process operates on a more impulsive level through the elicitation of prototypes of those who engage in the risky behavior . Prototypes, or stereotypical images associated with behavior operate through social influence processes to affect willingness . Contrary to deliberated intentions, willingness suggests more impulsive motivations in emotionally-evocative situations .The PWM typically has been used to identify intrapersonal factors guiding an individual’s engagement in risky health behaviors . We recently applied an adapted PWM in a study about parental discussions of marijuana use with children . Specifically, we conceptually elaborated the model: to predict a protective behavior ; to predict an interpersonal behavior ; and to depict worry as an additional element in motivating discussions with children about unhealthy eating and marijuana use. We consider each factor in the adapted PWM model in turn.According to the adapted PWM, growing weed vertically perceptions of the potential harms of health risk behaviors are likely to play a key role in motivating decisions to discuss them with their children.
Several theories of behaviors identify risk perceptions as a primary influence on health-related behaviors . Greater risk perceptions are associated with higher worry and greater intentions to engage in actions to protect against risky behaviors . Accordingly, the model proposes a similar role of perceived risk in motivating discussions of unhealthy eating and marijuana use between parents and their children. Importantly, there is a need to understand which risks motivate parent-child discussions about unhealthy eating and marijuana use, and so information about the specific risks that parents associate with these behaviors is needed to inform discussion tools designed to motivate parent discussions of these risky behaviors.Utilizing the adapted PWM, our previous study tested how perceived risks, prototypes, worry, intentions, and willingness predict parental discussions of marijuana use with their children. We administered a longitudinal survey to 499 American parents of children ages 10 to 17 assessing risk perceptions, prototypes, worry, discussion intentions, and discussion willingness. One month later, 409 participants completed another survey assessing whether they had discussed marijuana use with their child. At follow-up, 40% of participants reported having marijuana use discussions in the previous month. Structural-equation modeling revealed that perceived risks and negative prototypes positively predicted worry about their child using marijuana. Worry mediated the relationship between perceived risks and intentions, but not the relationship between prototypes and willingness.
Intentions positively predicted likelihood of marijuana use discussions, whereas willingness did not. Importantly, the findings indicated that, parents generally reported high willingness to talk to their children about marijuana use, but the lack of association between willingness and discussion behavior suggests an important gap. Specifically, this willingness-behavior gap could reflect perceived difficulty or lack of skills to have these discussions with their children. These findings guided our current efforts to further understand the parenting beliefs and skills that promote discussion with children and develop health communication strategies aimed at promoting parent and child discussion of the health risk behaviors. Parents who struggle to have conversations about marijuana and other risky substances might benefit from tools on how to have these discussions with their children. Our present research project applied these prior findings to develop and implement discussion tools that can motivate parent-child discussions about unhealthy eating and marijuana use. We expanded our theoretical model to also include the variables of attachment styles, parenting styles, parent-child communication, self efficacy, and coherence in the understanding of risks . In the next sections, we review the theory and research on these constructs that supported their inclusion in the extended PWM proposed for this research project.Attachment theory refers to a deep connection and social relationship developed between individuals, often established and shaped through the attachment between caregiver and infant .
Ainsworth and Bowlby categorize attachment theory into three types: secure, avoidant, and anxious/ambivalent. The style of attachment a child develops influences their development into adult life . When a caregiver is highly receptive and tender in the early months, as communicated through facial expressions and vocalizations, the infants tend to develop a secure attachment that promotes behaviors indicative of well being; for example, they tend to require a smaller amount of contact and cry less during the later months . Caregivers who respond to infant stress with affection and sensitivity prompt the infant to feel secure that they will be comforted by their caregiver when they are feeling distressed again. Secure attachments formed in infancy have been shown to predict positive emotion-regulation styles such as adaptive coping and resiliency in stressful situations, in adulthood . Attachment experiences can also shape the family environment, by influencing the interaction and relationship between parent and child . For example, secure attachment styles tend to lead to more affectionate and intimate parent child dynamics , often leading to more constructive discussions about problems and a trusting relationship between parent and child . The extended PWM posits that attachment styles are foundational personality dynamics that shape a new branch of constructs influencing discussion behaviors. Specifically, attachment styles guide parenting styles and have downstream influences on parent-child communication tendencies, discussion self-efficacy, discussion intentions and willingness, and discussion behaviors.Parenting styles have potent influences on the relationships between parents and children and shape a child’s development, relationships, and behaviors into adult life. Baumrind categorizes parenting styles into three types: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. Parents who exhibit authoritative parenting styles are generally warm and rational, and they support their children with affection and develop close relationships with them . Authoritative parents tend to be loving, and they avoid using punishment to discipline. On the other hand, authoritarian parents tend to be demanding and controlling, and they are often unresponsive to their child’s needs. Lastly, permissive parents tend to be patient and receptive, yet they exhibit inconsistencies in their responses towards their children’s behaviors . For example, permissive parents tend to use punishment infrequently, but they alternate between praise and punishment leading to unpredictability in their parenting practices towards their children . Authoritative parenting styles are associated with lower rates of health risk behaviors in adolescents, including lower use of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drugs . It has been found that adolescents that grow up with authoritative parents are more likely to participate in healthier behaviors compared to adolescents of authoritarian or permissive parents . In contrast, authoritarian and permissive parenting styles are associated with increased risks for health risk behaviors such as alcohol, tobacco, or marijuana use by children . These influences might operate at least in part via parent communications about health risk behaviors with their children; that is, parenting styles could shape the specific messages relayed to children, and these messages could vary in their persuasiveness. Messages framed in an authoritative style could be more effective than authoritarian or permissive messages in discouraging unhealthy eating and marijuana use in children.
The present research project focuses on parenting styles in three ways. First, it tests the extended PWM’s predictions that attachment styles will be associated with parenting styles which, in turn, will be associated with parent-child communication tendencies and have downstream links with self-efficacy and coherence in discussing unhealthy eating and marijuana use with children, discussion intentions and willingness, vertical grow weed and discussion behaviors . Second, it examines the efficacy of authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive messages about discussing unhealthy eating and marijuana use with adolescents in motivating effective discussions . Third, it examines the efficacy of discussion tools with features of authoritative parenting style on parental discussions of unhealthy eating and marijuana use with their children .The proposed associations between attachment styles and parenting styles are supported by previous research . Each of the attachment styles are shown to parallel one of the parenting styles. Specifically, a secure attachment in a child is associated with having an authoritative parent . Research also points to negative relationships between secure attachments, and both authoritarian and permissive parenting styles . Parallel relationships have been found between avoidant attachment and authoritarian parenting, and anxious attachment and permissive parenting styles as well . These studies highlight the associations of these parenting factors, although the independent relationships of attachment styles and parenting styles with parent-child dynamics regarding discussions of unhealthy eating and marijuana use remain unexplored.Parent-child communication refers to the parent perceptions of their openness to communication with their children . Parent-child communication tendencies can have a significant impact on the decisions the child makes. In fact, lower levels of parent-child communication have been associated with an increased risk of adolescent substance use, unprotected sex, and other delinquent behaviors . Of importance is the quality of the communication between parent and child, as this can influence the child’s well-being and health . For instance, it has been found that when parents communicate openly with their children, it leads to a decrease in alcohol and tobacco use in their children as compared with those parents that do not practice open communication with their children . In fact, authoritative parents encourage open discussions with their children about problems they face as well as supporting their child’s autonomy and decisions . These studies enhance the importance of the parent’s role in prompting their child’s health-related behaviors, and to further explore the association with attachment styles and parenting styles. Even more so adding to the significance of investigating this area within the context of unhealthy eating and marijuana use.The present dissertation developed and tested an extended PWM for parental discussions about health risk behaviors with children, and then applied the model to develop and evaluate discussion tools of unhealthy eating and marijuana use for parents. The project involved three studies. In Study 1, a national sample of parents participated in a survey testing the proposed model. The study also gathered descriptive information about parenting dynamics of attachment styles, parenting styles, and parent-child communication; specific risks and prototypes associated with unhealthy eating and marijuana use by one’s child; levels of discussion self-efficacy, coherence in understanding behavioral risks, worry, discussion intentions, and discussion willingness; and how often parents talk about the behaviors with their child. Study 2, conducted with youth, examined their views of messages framed according to authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles about discussion of unhealthy eating and marijuana use with a parent. Study 3, a longitudinal study with a national sample of parents, tested the effects of authoritatively-framed discussion tools of unhealthy eating and marijuana on whether the parent later had a conversation with their child about the behaviors.This chapter begins with a description of Study 1 including aims and hypotheses; methods ; detailed list of measures; overview of statistical analyses; results, discussion, and conclusion of study. Study 1 explores the factors delineated by the adapted PWM framework for parental discussions of unhealthy eating and marijuana use, and tests the relationships among factors proposed by the model using a survey of parents living in the United States who have children ages 10 to 17 years old. This study specifically investigates the extent to which parents discuss unhealthy eating and marijuana use with their children, the relationship between parenting dynamics , the risks, prototypes, and worries associated with these behaviors by children, how confident the parent is to discuss unhealthy eating and marijuana use , the levels of coherence in understanding these risks, and parent motivations to have these discussions . There was also a focus on the relationship of child’s age with parent discussions of unhealthy eating and marijuana use. Parents might be more inclined to discuss unhealthy eating than marijuana use with younger children, given their long-standing roles as providing food and nutrition to their child while potentially viewing the opportunities for their child to use marijuana as low. In contrast, parents might be more inclined to discuss marijuana use than unhealthy eating with their older children as they expect them to desire independence in food choices while having a growing appreciation of opportunities for their child to use marijuana. Although age-related differences in parent child discussions centered on unhealthy eating and marijuana use have not been studied previously, understanding these differences can guide efforts to improve future discussions for younger and older youth.