After calculating these indices, this knowledge was further organized to explore the cultural importance of these plants, habitat distribution and use in contextualizing adaptive capacity. Outings, informal group discussions, and long-term presence in Hutsulshchyna with key elders allowed for the development of shared trust and the witnessing of lived knowledge. By delving into these qualitative experiences, context and meaning emerge to provide a deeper understanding that cannot be captured in strictly quantitative ethnobotanical indices. By merging this collaborative, qualitative approach with quantitative indices, a richer perspective can be gained, based not only on informant consensus on wild species use, but on what this ethnobotanical knowledge means in supporting socioecological resilience in local food systems. With the direction, guidance, and cooperation from Hutsul elders, farmers, herbalists, community members and colleagues, I recorded a total of 108 species from 79 genera and 48 families in a total of ten different habitats . While the goal was to understand the role wild plant use and management in Hutsulshchyna, while interviewing, other topics arose such as use of cultivated plants , mushrooms , and lichens . The notation of which plants were considered ‘wild’ was determined by the interviewees. Species noted by interviewees as cultivated were defined as such. Additionally, I noted instances where observed wild species were seen growing in cultivated spaces such as gardens.
Among the wild species,heavy duty propagation trays the most well represented families included Rosaceae, Asteraceae and Gentianaceae. Among the cultivated plants, the most well represented families include Apiaceae and Asteracea. A total of 1508 UR for wild plants, a total of 220 UR for cultivated plants and a total of 68 UR for mushrooms were provided by participants. Out of 97 plant species examined, 23 plants were cultivated, and 74 plants were wild. Out of 97 plants stated as culturally important , there are 4 species of evergreen trees, 11 species of deciduous trees, 15 species of shrubs, 62 species of perennials, 4 species of annuals, 1 aquatic plant species along with 2 species of lichen. The CI index is useful since the measure is independent of the number of informants and can be used for comparing regional botanical knowledge . When analyzing which species, overall, were considered the most culturally important , among the top three wild plant species were St. John’s wort , bilberry , and raspberry . The top three cultivated species with the highest noted cultural importance and highest noted use reports were chamomile , apple , and chokeberry . Among the 9 fungi species, Boletaceae was the most well represented family. Considering cultural importance , frequency of citation , relative frequency of citation , relative importance , and use reports among mushrooms noted, fly agaric ranks first and penny bun ranks second. Chanterelle ranks third in terms of cultural importance and relative importance and ranks fourth in terms of relative frequency of citation . The mushrooms indicating the most uses were penny bun and fly agaric followed by chanterelle . While fly agaric was discussed the most, it is very sparingly gathered, if gathered at all. Its bold presence in the analysis has more to do with its symbolic importance and ecologically frequent presence in the region than its use in everyday life.
Mycological knowledge came as a byproduct of a different series of topical questions about plant use. Incidental gathering of wild plants typically occurs when mushroom hunting, hence their inclusion in the analysis. This dataset is small since it was incidental knowledge gathered through interviews and participant observation on plant knowledge. It does not capture the extensive deep and rich mycological knowledge rooted in this region. The highest use category was medicinal , followed by food use , along with subsequent subcategories . . Fifty-eight percent of culturally important species exhibit a food use, while 49% of species serve as food uses either as their primary or secondary use, as determined by fidelity level calculations . Primary and secondary uses of each species were based on the fidelity level calculations , which calculates the percentage of informants who use the plant for the same purpose as compared to all uses of all plants , signifying use consensus among community members. The phrase, “food is medicine”, came up continually in discussions related to environmental changes occurring in the region; community members described impacts of pollution on habitat health, gathering practices and ultimately peoples’ health. Areas exhibiting high areas of pollution, or disturbance tend to be avoided, since species gathered there have deleterious properties, impacting human health. Many of the highest ranked culturally important food species were also noted for their medicinal qualities, such as bilberry , raspberry , and various mushroom species. Thirty-point six percent of species shared both medicine or food use categories as either their primary or secondary use.
Thirty-five-point two percent of species shared both medicinal and “ecological uses” as either their primary or secondary use. As noted in Chapter 2, “ecological use” denotes TEK significance surrounding a particular species. Species that are primarily gathered for medicinal purposes were continually noted by interviewees to be gathered in higher, remote areas, therefore exhibiting ecological significance. Gathering species from various culturally important ecosystems that are directly used as medicine or food reinforces the clear tie between ecosystem and human health. In addition to calculating the cultural importance of species and use category percentages, an understanding of human interaction with various gathering sites emerged. There is a gradient of human interaction across habitats : roadside, forest, garden, toloka, polonyna, field, pasture, meadow, woodland, and alpine area . Many of the same culturally important species are found in a variety of habitats with different degrees of human interaction, providing accessibility in times of need or disturbance. If for example, a particular habitat becomes impacted , there are other habitats to find that same species. No specific habitat harbors all or even a majority of culturally important species, which provides a layer of resilience within the community.Discussion of regional environmental change and its impacts on maintaining resilience arose through participatory observation, conversations, interviews, and informal discussion groups. Ecosystem, climatic and cultural changes are testing local and regional resilience; there are specific factors impacting culturally important plants in the region as stated by local Hutsul community members. Colonial legacies documented from the 1700s up until 1991 have impacted the landscape, including plant grass and forest communities and with it culturally important medicinal species. Commercial harvesting, a more recent development in recent years, threatens accessibility for local gathering of medicinal species such as Vaccinium myrtillus, Arnica montana, Cetratria islandica, Gentiana lutea. Additionally, flooding and accompanying erosion have increased in frequency and severity because of extensive clear-cutting logging practices. Lastly, the continuing impacts of climate change have caused more dysregulation of phenological plant cycles as well an increased the uptick of pest infestations. In the calculation of ethnobotanical indices, one of the use categories listed was economic use . Out of 108 culturally important species, 9 species are consistently mentioned as sold or traded in small markets, personal contacts, or pharmacies. They include Cetraria islandica , Arnica montana, Cantharellus ciborium , Boletus edulis , Vaccinnium myrtillus, Rubus idaeus, Rubus caesius, Rhodiola rosea, and Gentiana lutea. As noted in in Table 3.5, seven of nine economically important species are in the top twenty culturally important species in Hutsulshchyna. Fifty-five percent of economically significant species are food,vertical cannabis while 77% of species are used medicinally. It is also worthwhile to note that two root species, Gentiana lutea and Rhodiola rosea are listed as endangered species and are significantly impacted by external commercial harvesting efforts. Bilberries , are one of the most culturally important plants in Hutsulshchyna, and are the most popular product for sale and household consumption.
Along with bilberries, mushrooms are also traditional forest foods for which demand is consistent and their price remains stable. Fresh mushrooms are sold continuously from summer until fall, while dried mushrooms are sold during the winter months. The variance in price is dependent on yearly harvests. However, the demand for these species is continual and does not change, due to their importance as traditional foods. Berries and lichen are typically sold in the summer, while roots and mushrooms are sold all year round in dried or fresh. Two well-known Polish ethnographers, Adam Fischer and Jan Falkowski, led several Carpathian Mountain expeditions in the 1930s , tangentially addressing wild food use during scarcity in Hutsulshchyna in the last century. In one study, Adam Fischer sent out a total of 235 ethnobotanical questionnaires; 70 of them were sent to primary school teachers in three counties of the Hutsul areas in the Carpathian Mountains . The most common cited taxa in Hutsul counties were the leaves of Chenopodium album, Rumex acetosa, Urtica dioica and Tussilago farfara. In a later study led by Jan Falkowski , the same plants including Chenopodium album, Rumex spp and Urtica dioica were also mentioned. Also noted in Fisher’s earlier study were mushrooms that grow on beech . Coltsfoot leaves were used for wrapping cabbage rolls and often mentioned in Hutsul villages. Unique to Falkowski’s study was the mention of berry gathering for holiday and personal sale. Here, the convergence of berries as fallback traditional foods, contributing to a diverse local economy is recognized. These studies provide a mention of a few fallback foods used in times of food shortage and colonization in Hutsulshchyna. Interestingly, some of these same plants mentioned by Adam Fischer, a Polish ethnographer, in his 1934 questionnaire are still used today, not necessarily noted as fallback foods, but for other uses including food and medicine by scholars . By referring to Fisher’s list of fallback foods used in 1934, there are certain plants that still hold significance and importance in the region today . Chenopodium album, Ribes sp., Rumex acetosa, Thymus spp., Tussilago farfara, and Vaccinium vitis-idaea showed prevalence as fallback foods in the 1930s and are still used today in all current studies in Hutsulshschyna . Chenopodium album as well as Rumex acetosa are still used in soups in all studies. In our study, young shoots are noted to be fried with onion. Ribes sp. are used in the fermentation of cucumbers, as well as in various recreational drinks , jam and marmalade. Additionally, both species have medicinal value . Thymus spp. are used as seasoning in soups and traditional foods as well as medicine for cold-related ailments like coughing. Tussilago farfara is primarily used medicinally today in syrups, tinctures, and teas to treat colds, bronchitis, and coughs. Interestingly, it was also noted to be used only during famine times as traditional food in cabbage rolls , like Fischer’s observations in 1934. However, in this study, coltsfoot is still occasionally used today to make holubtsi. This plant’s use in foods could have been reserved to times of scarcity since it can exhibit latent liver toxicity . Typically eaten as a berry, Vaccinium vitis-idaea is used as a food in jam, juice, tea, and medicine to treat blood pressure. These wild species are not simply reserved for times of scarcity; they are actively culturally important species of importance, prevalence and use in traditional foods and medicine. Species mentioned in Fischer’s study that continue to exhibit cultural importance today include Vaccinium vitis-idaea , Allium ursinum , and Crataegus spp. , Tussilago farfara , Rumex spp. . These species exhibit a diversity of uses in addition to serving as nutrient-dense foods during times of scarcity. Elders also mentioned many additional common and prolific species including Elytrigia repens, Typha latifolia, Elymus repense, Fagus sylvaticus, Quercus robur, Orchis mascula, Plantanthera bifolia, Rhodiola rosea Plantago major, Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium pratens, Carduus natuns, Armoracia rusticana and Urtica dioica . Most importantly is the continual reliance of berries , Rubus species , Ribes species , Fragaria vesca, Sambucus nigra, Aronia melanocarpa, and Sorbus aucuparia and mushroom species . Mushrooms, specifically within the family of Boletacea, contain proportionally high amounts of protein . The grounded importance of wild berries and mushrooms in Hutsul traditional foods, while not specifically mentioned by interviewees , is an integral part of culture and survival. Culturally important species of the historical heart of Hutsulshchyna include a total of 108 species from 79 genera, 48 families commonly found in a total of ten different habitats.