A second field season consisted of conducting follow-up interviews with community members, along with Hutsul mycologist, Maria Pasailiuk. We asked questions to further clarify species names and uses, as well as conducted participant observation. Particular attention was paid to gathering practices and plant names used, whether they were Hutsul, common or scientific names. Throughout both field seasons , key elders and knowledge holders were interviewed multiple times to clarify plant names and plant uses with the aid of photographs and voucher specimens. Alignment of common names with botanical names, and plant identification of voucher specimens was confirmed and cross-referenced with botanists and scientists at the Hutsulshchyna National Nature Park as well as botanist Roman Lysiuk, from Danylo Halytsky Lviv National Medical University. Taxonomic texts from the Hutsulshchyna National Nature Park library were also used to identify species including plants, mushrooms, and lichens. Additionally, throughout both field seasons,rolling benches hydroponics guided by elders and specialists, I participated in trips throughout the gathering season to the Chornohora Mountain range and local areas to better understand gathering practices in the region. Lastly, I organized a total of five informal group discussions with local women regarding plant use and environmental change seen in the region. Interviews were then transcribed, translated, and coded.
Semi-directed interviews were transcribed in Ukrainian by me as well as colleagues . I then translated the interviews into English and coded them using a mix of deductive and inductive codes in Nvivo. A round of structural coding was employed to sift out general themes and basic categorization . Data were organized in Excel and in R including pertinent information – plant name , plant part used, method of preparation, recorded use , as well as habitats found . This last category, habitats found, denotes where a particular species is found and gathered. Using the ethnobotany R package, developed by Cory Whitney , ethnobotanical quantitative metrics were calculated including use report , cultural importance index , frequency of citation per species , number of uses per species , relative frequency of citation index , and fidelity level per species for both wild species and commonly cultivated plants. All species were included in the cumulative calculation of indices in order to evaluate where each species ranked overall, regardless of categorization. After calculating each of these indices, this knowledge was further organized to explore cultural prevalence and TEK surrounding species use. I created a use category called “ecological use” to signal TEK surrounding species use; This denotation indicates that a species holds specific TEK and this “ecological use” was incorporated in the calculation of the indices.
Quantitative ethnobotanical indices provide a starting point for discussion of cultural consensus surrounding species use. However, this discussion deepens by integrating qualitative methods , which examine ‘the why’ and ‘the how’ behind species gathering and use, elucidating the context of these ecological practices – specifically TEK in the historical, cultural center of Hutsulshchyna. In order to understand traditional ecological knowledge , thorough investment of time in place and relationship-building with community members is needed. Qualitative methods can better elucidate the TEK surrounding species’ cultural importance, use, stories, rituals, and the context-driven meaning behind the indices themselves. Outings, informal meetings, participant observation, multiple meetings and long-term presence with key elders allow for the development of shared trust and the witnessing of lived knowledge. Many times, a plant is used but not explicitly mentioned in interviews, not because it isn’t important but because it is subsumed into the daily rhythm of existence. By incorporating this qualitative approach alongside quantitative indices, a richer, place-based perspective can be gained based not only on participant consensus on diverse species use, but how TEK supports and informs community relationships to the broader landscape. With the direction, guidance, and cooperation from Hutsul elders, farmers, herbalists, and community members, I recorded a total of 108 species from 79 genera and 48 families in a total of ten different habitats .
While the goal was to understand the role wild plant use and management in Hutsulshchyna, while interviewing, other topics arose such as use of cultivated plants , mushrooms , and lichens . The notation of which plants were considered ‘wild’ was determined by the interviewees. Species noted by interviewees as cultivated were defined as such. Additionally, I noted instances where observed wild species were seen growing in cultivated spaces such as gardens. Among the wild species, the most well represented families included Rosaceae, Asteraceae and Gentianaceae. Among the cultivated plants, the most well represented families include Apiaceae and Asteracea. A total of 1508 UR for wild plants, a total of 220 UR for cultivated plants and a total of 68 UR for mushrooms were provided by participants. Out of 97 plant species examined, 23 plants were cultivated, and 74 plants were wild. Out of 97 plants stated as culturally important , there are 4 species of evergreen trees, 11 species of deciduous trees, 15 species of shrubs, 62 species of perennials, 4 species of annuals, 1 aquatic plant species along with 2 species of lichen. The quantitative outputs are a result of different ways of distinguishing importance by number of uses, spread of uses within a community, frequency of citation, and diversity of uses. Frequency of citation deliberately considers only the number of people that mention a species useful, while all other indices consider the number of uses for a species. Relative importance assigns greater importance of the number of uses of a species, accounting for use categories. Cultural Importance index calculates the spread of use among the participants for each species as well as the diversity of uses. The CI index is useful since the measure is independent of the number of informants and can be used for comparing regional botanical knowledge . By calculating each of these indices, a range species of cultural importance arises .Raspberry is eaten as a fruit, used as flavoring in alcoholic tinctures, prepared as tea, and made into a juice and jam. Raspberry, is consumed recreationally and its leaves, stem and berries are commonly brewed into a medicinal tea. There is a noted difference between cultivated raspberries and forest raspberries in terms of physical appearance, taste, aroma, and medicinal properties. Forest raspberries have more curative properties, are more flavorful, aromatic and are generally smaller than those transplanted to garden environments. The frequency of citation is the sum of informants that cite a use for a species . The relative frequency of citation index calculates the relative frequency of citation for each species in the data set. The ranking of the relative frequency of citation index follows the most frequently cited plants. The most frequently cited plants were St. John’s wort , followed by arnica and raspberry . Arnica, a regionally important plant, is noted as a species declining in population in surrounding villages. Arnica montana was listed in Ukraine’s Red Book of endangered species in 2008 and noted as a sought out commercially harvested plant. Currently, Hutsul locals have stated its disappearance in lowland areas due to commercial harvesting and climate change. “Now, it grows in the high mountains.” [Vaselyna ] In terms of gathering, flowers are preferred due to their high economic value; flowers are commonly used in a tincture to treat bronchitis and as a topical treatment in tea form. It is also noted to be toxic, and its usage is measured. Although participants were asked about wild plant use, they cited 23 commonly used cultivated plants . There are an extensive number of cultivated plants, seen in gardens,cannabis indoor grow system but not mentioned in interviews, and these plants were not included in quantitative indices. Out of the 40 people interviewed about wild plants, 32 mentioned uses of cultivated plants unprompted and stated the importance of cultivating their own gardens. Stressing the differences between cultivated and wild plant species, participants stated wild plant species harvested from landscapes other than gardens have more desirable properties in taste, smell, and medicinal quality than their garden analog varieties . Certain cultivated plants are perennial and easy-growing such as Melissa officinalis and Mentha spp., and are therefore available and abundant. These garden plants are used more for food and seasoning purposes, while wild plants are relied upon for their medicinal properties.
Gardens provide a reliable, semi-predictable resource of nutrition and medicine. In the Carpathian Mountains as well as generally in Ukraine, home gardens provide a source of food and medicine. In addition to various habitats nested within the landscape , these micro-environments within the agroecosystem create another function and layer of resilience in a larger ecosystem. Home gardens act as centers of experimentation, supporting introduction of new crops, and crop improvement. In some cases, elders mention transplanting wild plant species into their own home gardens including Fragaria vesca and medicinal root species such as Rhadiola rosea and Arnica montana. In all cases, by incorporating wild species into gardens, perceived medicinal properties, taste and structure were altered and diminished. For example, they noted that the curative medicinal qualities of alpine medicinal roots grown in the garden are diminished in comparison to their wild analogs. While participants were not explicitly asked about cultivated plants, their use arose when asked about plants that are commonly gathered. To see recorded taxa including habitats, names, parts use, mode of use, see Appendix A, Table A1. The top three cultivated species with the highest noted cultural importance and highest noted use reports were chamomile , apple , and chokeberry . Chamomile is used in bathing , as a tea , and as a medicine for cattle. Chamomile is a versatile and common plant where participants generally “always have a little bit of this in the cupboard.” [Hanya ] Historically, chamomile was used and planted in herbal gardens called a zilnyk . Wild field chamomile populations are in decline, hence their cultivation in gardens. Apple species are used not only for food but also for various drinking beverages including uzvar and compote . In addition, apple species vary across the region and are also of cultural importance on a holiday called Spas where orchards are blessed by the local priests. Chokeberry is culturally significant and nearly everyone plants this bush near their house. It is easily found in gardens and nearby forests. There are designated gathering spots that people go to gather chokeberry. Chokeberry is used to make wine, jam, kvass , and medicinally treats blood pressure changes. The most frequently cited plant was chamomile , followed by greater Celandine and comfrey . Greater Celandine is noted for its extreme toxicity, grows alone, and is used for topical treatment of warts. Comfrey root is regarded as a “human plant,” in that it is typically found near homes and villages. Comfrey, used for centuries, is targeted for pain management and treatment of lungs. Ecologically speaking, comfrey is an ecological indicator species; it is found in edge habitats , indicating that beech forests are present or expanding. The plant indicating the most uses was cannabis , followed by chokeberry and apple Cannabis was historically used but is currently outlawed in Ukraine. From about 1950 to 1980, the world’s largest cannabis fiber producer was the Soviet Union with the main production areas being in Ukraine, Russia and near Poland’s border . Its primary use was as a textile . Cannabis was also used as a tea, processed as an oil, used as medicinal treatment and in rituals. Its symbolism and use was integral in the celebration of St. Andrew’s feast day. There’s a story that boys would go and plant hemp under windows. They would mix it with sand and dirt and say, “Hemp, hemp, with the help of St. Andrew, I plant you/ Here I plant this [hemp], married I want to be” [Lubomyr ] and the boys would plant hemp under windows of girls that they would want to marry. Chokeberry , typically eaten as a fruit, is brewed into a tea, and other recreational beverages including kvass, and wine. In addition, it is made into tinctures. Ecologically, it is a plant that thrives in edge plant communities between village and forest. Nine mushroom species were identified, with Boletaceae being the most well represented family. Like the inclusion of cultivated plants in the indices, mycological knowledge came as abyproduct of a different series of topical questions. Incidental gathering of wild plants typically occurs when mushroom hunting hence their inclusion in the analysis.