Similarly, poverty, family dysfunction, parental psychopathology and substance abuse, and trauma have been linked to negative developmental outcomes for adolescents . Hence, resilience as a process can be found internally, i.e., residing within the individual, and externally, i.e., residing outside of the individual.The study was concerned with both internal and external factors of resilience to evaluate pathways that influence substance problems for male youths on probation. It examined the introverted youth offender type with schizoid tendencies, and explored whether trauma affects problematic substance use behaviors through schizoid personality traits. And, I was interested in studying whether the effect maladaptive personality traits have on substance use behaviors could be mediated by social support. It is important to note that while individuals high on schizoid traits tend to be introverted, not all introverted individuals have schizoid traits. The schizoid personality type is sorely understudied, in particular among juveniles with a criminal history. Existing literature suggests that social support may function as a buffer when examining psychological trauma and delinquent behaviors . Yet, to my knowledge there is currently no published study on whether having friends or teachers to turn to serves a protective function for schizoid personality characteristics. To sum, this study closed the gap in the existing juvenile justice literature by examining the relationships between previous trauma, schizoid personality and substance problems.
Since little is known about schizoid personality among substance users this study helped illuminate whether it is a protective or risk factor for substance problems. The study clarified whether the schizoid personality type lowered the risk for substance problems because of its preference for solitary activities minimizing the influence of antisocial peers, or,vertical grow rack whether it heightened it due to using drugs to treat inner psychological pain. Especially, since there is theory pointing to schizoid characteristics evolving from trauma history, it appears to be an overlooked personality type that is at elevated risk for drug use as a self-soothing coping mechanism . Additionally,this study set out to confirm the trauma-schizoid personality pathway to add empirical evidence to the trauma literature and psychoanalytic theory. As part of a national government-funded grant project community mental health clinics nationwide administered treatment models to youths post-detention in order to address needs for substance use reduction. There is a wealth of empirical research on antisocial personality types and a dearth of studies on introverted youths. What about those youths who are placed into the juvenile justice system and who do not draw readily attention to themselves because they are quiet and isolate themselves? At this point it is critical to broaden the typologies of personality research of youths who commit crimes and turn our attention to the internalizing type. This study set out to examine schizoid personality types and whether social support served as a protective factor against substance problems the same way it has been shown for impulsive, externalizing character types. Schizoid traits are at the core of many psychopathologies and they are therefore of central importance to our understanding of how they interact with risks and strengths during a critical, developmental period of life . In order to broaden the conceptualization of youths with a criminal history and gain an understanding of how schizoid personality types relate to substance problems, this study implemented a latent variable approach that was able to address constructs of personality, trauma, substance problems, and social support and their respective interrelations.
One of the goals of this study was to build a pathway model for juveniles with a criminal record taking a resilience model approach. Previous psychological trauma was considered a static risk, and schizoid personality a dynamic risk factor because personality traits are still evolving during adolescence . Social support was considered an asset because it has positive effects across domains, even in the absence of risk factors . It is similarly conceptualized as a dynamic factor because social support sources tend to change over the course of time and developmental stage. Even though mental health problems and substance use disorder often occur comorbidly, there is evidence to suggest that the former as a result from early traumatic experiences precedes the latter . And, granting substance use disorders are a common research focus for studying the offender population, there is value in attending to problematic substance use behaviors that are sub-clinical or do not meet diagnostic criteria. Early detection of interpersonal problems or academic difficulties related to but independent of frequency of substance use may be a better indicator for evaluating treatment necessity and risk than the typical criteria of high frequency and severity of drugs used . This is because the latter implies a longer-term use history that places the individual at high-risk when beginning treatment instead of intervening when risk levels are lower and treatment prognosis is better.Did individuals with higher vulnerabilities due to a trauma history tend to have lower social support? Understanding interlink ages of trauma, schizoid personality, interpersonal relationships, and substance problems is important for lowering recidivism rates among juveniles on probation and to facilitate rehabilitation. Findings were intended to enable practitioners to make informed treatment decisions and add to the current research on juvenile delinquency in several ways.
First, the role of trauma for the development of illegal activities was empirically studied. Second, the narrow focus on antisocial personality types in the development of substance problems was expanded to include introverted types. Third, I explored whether social support acted as a mediator between internal and external risk factors and substance problems for this population. The adolescent population deserves research attention because it is a unique group with developmental challenges that all too often are insufficiently incorporated into effective intervention and prevention efforts. For example, in adolescence developmental tasks entail transitioning into assuming adult roles, forming an identity, and increasing autonomy . However, the adolescent brain has not yet matured, and self-regulatory areas of the brain are not yet fully developed . For some, delinquent acts such as underage drinking may represent a feeling of autonomy; for others, however, substance use may signify a maladaptive way of coping with unwanted feelings. Youth antisocial behavior is a complex phenomenon that involves many factors spanning across developmental stages. In 2009 there were approximately 4 million juveniles between the ages of 10-17 arrested,vertical grow table which was 14% of the total juvenile population in the U.S. . The majority of serious crimes, i.e., serious violent and property crimes, were committed by young adults 18 years and older . Some large-scale studies like the Monitoring the Future study from the University of Michigan suggests that the official data may under report actual rates . Yet, violent juvenile crime is less typical than nonviolent crimes, e.g., property offenses . For juveniles who were admitted to correctional facilities, a large percentage reoffended within three years in the state of California in the fiscal year of 2004-2005 . Moreover, Latino youths had the second highest state-level incarceration recidivism rate after African Americans, which makes them a high-risk group . It is important to note that immigration per se has been associated with a reduction in violence because immigrants were found to be less violent than the general population . In a study on dating partner violence Sanderson, Coker, Roberts, Torolero, and Reininger found that Latinos and Latinas who were more acculturated, that is who had assimilated to the values and norms of the host culture, were more likely to report dating violence . Le and Stockdale found that Asian youths who experienced acculturative dissonance, which refers to conflict as a result of different acculturation rates among family members, were more likely to engage in serious violence. It appears that challenges of integration into a new host culture pose potential risk or protective factors for antisocial behaviors, depending on the level of acculturation. Another element of antisocial behaviors is gender whereby males represent a higher risk group for delinquency than females; however, female crime has been found to be under reported . The way society intervenes in juvenile offending behaviors has changed over time. In 1899 the first juvenile drug court was established in Illinois.
At that time youth crime was relatively low and involved predominantly nonviolent crimes . The focus was on understanding the underlying causes for deviant behavior, and state intervention was supposed to be a corrective parenting experience for the youths . Even though the juvenile courts incorporated a holistic approach to youth criminal activity, in 1922 only 7% of juvenile courts offered mental health services . At the end, juvenile courts were perceived as too lenient and ineffective, and imprisonment was considered the only viable choice for community safety . When juvenile crime rates were rising in the 1980s legislators proposed getting tough with youths who commit crimes, and changes in the legislature allowed transfers of minors from the juvenile to the criminal court where they could be tried as adults . Currently, there is a return to treating rather than punishing juvenile crime . This policy shift is based on empirical studies showing that services are more effective than confinement . Today there is consideration of developmental aspects, such as cognitive ability, peer influence, and fluidity of personality in the response to juvenile crime . Juveniles with a criminal history face particular challenges for reentry after incarceration. For example, they may return to dysfunctional homes, domestic violence, deviant peer groups, and substance abuse within the family system . Correspondingly, many juveniles with a criminal history face a number of risk factors, such as growing up in single parent households without father figures and with little parental supervision or social support . Moreover, many have been subjected to maltreatment, poverty, and dangerous neighborhoods . Thus, many of the risk factors tend to persist since they are related to familial structures, parental attachment, and living conditions complicating rehabilitation. Another hurdle to rehabilitation is concerned with school reintegration. Many youths on probation may struggle with completing school and find employment because they have limited work history and a criminal record . The vicious cycle of low academic performance and limited educational goals due to a criminal record exacerbates school difficulties . Moving forward in dealing with the complex phenomenon of youth crime the National Institute of Justice recommends several changes: For one, it proposes raising the minimum age for criminal court from 21 to 24 years of age . And, it suggests creating alternative correctional centers for youths where treatment is offered, including drug and mental health treatment . At the beginning of the 21st century policy makers consider taking the youth’s age into consideration and decreasing severity of penalties for younger people. They are increasingly aware of the necessity to conduct risk and needs assessments with youths in correctional settings, and to offer services for mental well being and academic success. Targeting substance problems when working with youths who engage in illegal activities is a priority. First of all, the rate for substance abuse and dependence among youths with a criminal record are higher than for noncriminal youths . Second, substance use has been linked to delinquency . Arguably, committing crimes under the influence may be facilitated by lowered inhibition and impaired judgment . And, criminal activity may be the means to the end for a drug user who, in order to maintain his drug habit, needs substantial amounts of money . Among adolescents in the country as well as world-wide, cannabis is the preferred substance among psychoactive drugs . The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry states that cannabis use is the highest in 30 years. School problems, mental health disorders, physiological dependence, and arrests are some of the reported outcomes of cannabis use . Moreover, Dennis et al. wrote in their research report on cannabis treatment effectiveness that cannabis-related arrests not only pertain to possession but to more serious offenses, such as property and violent offenses. Hence, cannabis use among youths is not only a personal problem but a societal issue. Research has shown that when consuming cannabis under the age of 18 the youth is 2.5 times more likely to develop a dependence to that substance compared to when using it over the age of 18 . Moreover, regular use of marijuana can lead to dependence by which discontinuing use will cause feelings of irritability, changes in appetite and mood, sleep disturbance, and anxiety .